A "Perfect" Image of the Self

Object: Looking glass or mirror, ca. 1760-1770

Accession #: 1959.0009

Mirrors as far back as 6000 B.C.E. were made of obsidian, a naturally occurring black glass. These mirrors were “honed carefully into a flat, polished surface, it provided a dark and haunting vision of the self.”  Since the Renaissance, large flat mirrors became a part of the “indoor landscape” of American and European upper class homes.  Pocket mirrors became widespread throughout all classes.  This English George II Parcel-Gilt Mahogany Chippendale looking glass, or mirror, in Wilton’s collection has a broken pediment centering a gilded phoenix and is framed with egg-and-dart border.  It is much like one that might have graced the walls of one of the rooms of the Randolph family.

During the sixteenth century, inhabitants of the Venetian island Murano were making mirrors by applying an amalgam of mercury and tin to the back of a smooth sheet of glass.  Hundreds of years passed with other countries trying to imitate the Venetian process before Louis XIV convinced a group of Venetian glass makers to give up their secrets.  They were assassinated before the French could learn everything they needed to know.  However, what the French were able to learn resulted in Louis XIV’s famous Hall of Mirrors, built at Versailles in 1682.  The first glass plates for mirrors in England were made in 1673 at Lambeth, a district in Central London.

By the 1700s, the process reached beyond Venice, resulting "in such an abundance of metallically backed glass that mirrors became mere light catchers to enliven the household, prized as evidence of social standing.”  There also arose a difficulty in making the glass “even and flat” due to the silvering which was done through the mercury process.  The “heavy quicksilver” did not easily stay on the glass surface but would “fall off in patches.”  Over time, many of the mirrors made with this original silvering process appear to be discolored and opague.

From the introduction of the glass mirror, the industry and art of making frames for these “looking glasses” sprung up.  Cabinet makers were able to use their skills in a different way and most frames began to be made of wood.  This particular mirror in Wilton’s collection is a Chippendale mirror.  Chippendale mirrors range from 1750-1780 and a typical one has, “the base cut in graceful curves, while a broken arch, on which perched a gilded eagle with outspread wings surmounted the top.”  This mirror has a gilded phoenix which was a commonplace element in the English classical vocabulary.

Most mirrors were imported to the colonies from other countries, such as England or France, whereas in London looking glasses could be found in any and every room.  The Randolphs undoubtedly followed this trend and could afford to do so.  The May 5, 1815 inventory listed the house as having “1 large looking glass” in the Dining Room and “1 Looking Glass” in the Parlor as well as a “1 small looking glass” in the Master bedchamber.  Not surprised by the lasting appeal a mirror has, one historian expressed how “the flat mirror engenders a correspondingly ‘perfect’ image of the self, one that is transparent and knowable, stable and exterior, a vision not filtered through the perceptions of others.”  Mirrors continue to find their way into people’s homes today for this reason as well as their aesthetic appeal. The mirror possesses the ability of opening up and brightening a room with the depth and light it reflects. The Randolphs saw this and made elegant use of it at Wilton.

Bibliography

“Constitution Mirrors”. Internet Antique Gazette. 21 March 2013.

<http://www.internetantiquegazette.com/decorative_accessories/2663_constitution_mirrors/>

Cescinsky, Herbert and George Leland Hunter. English and American Furniture. Garden City

Publishing Company, Inc. Garden City: 1929.

Hummel, Charles F. A Winterthur guide to American Chippendale Furniture: Middle Atlantic

and Southern Colonies. Crown Publishers Inc. New York: 1976.

Lockwood, Luke Vincent. Colonial Furniture in America. Googlebooks.com. 14 March 2013.

<http://books.google.com/books?id=AizrAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA284&lpg=PA284&dq=mirrors+in+Colonial+America&source=bl&ots=8jfJ8p1Qjk&sig=Y27KeknwuoUvmcfpY8eHMdwREyI&hl=en&sa=X&ei=1MQ4UeyLJ4vv0QGMi4CgBw&ved=0CG0Q6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=mirrors%20in%20Colonial%20America&f=false>

Northend, Mary H. House and Garden, Volume 16. Googlebooks.com. “Old Looking glasses:

The Mirror’s evolution-comparatively modern types and their characteristics”. 21 March 2013

Mcelheny , Josiah.  “A Short History of the Glass Mirror”. Cabinet. Issue 14. Summer 2008. 21

March 2013. <http://cabinetmagazine.org/issues/14/mcelheny.php>

Stanard, Mary Newton. Colonial People: It’s People and Customs. Googlebooks.com. 21 March

2013.

<http://books.google.com/books?id=AoY0Ebf1BKkC&pg=PA86&lpg=PA86&dq=colonial+looking+glasses&source=bl&ots=5KZ2VxnP0p&sig=SJv2B7JlfI2Wrl_hoAGXaDjERBk&hl=en&sa=X&ei=bzFDUcPyNarj4AP274HwCw&ved=0CEwQ6AEwBg>

Admiring the Feathered Race: John James Audubon’s Birds of America

I am persuaded that alone in the woods, or at my work,

I can make better use of the whole of myself than in any

other situation, and that thereby I have lost nothing in

exchanging the pleasure of studying men for that of

admiring the feathered race.

John James Audubon, a passionate 18-year-old Frenchman, born in Haiti and raised in France by his father and adoptive mother, arrived in America in August of 1803. Fleeing conscription into Napoleon’s army, Audubon came to America to manage Mill Grove, a farm outside of Philadelphia, which was owned by his father, Jean. Even though his affinity for birds and passion for creating art had long been developed in France, Mill Grove was vital to his growth as an ornithologist and artist. He often wandered the grounds and woods drawing and observing the birds he encountered.

Owing to the difficulty of accurately illustrating and studying live birds – cameras had yet to be invented –Audubon was forced to hunt and trap his specimens. He devised a method for mounting the birds onto sharpened wires attached to a wooden board, which allowed him to position them into lifelike poses and to
better depict the details of their plumage. Audubon was also interested in the behavioral patterns of birds, and Mill Grove became the setting for the first recorded bird banding experiment in America. Here he tagged a pair of Peewee Flycatchers by attaching a light silver thread to one leg of each bird to see if they returned to the same nest every year. The following year he was delighted to discover that they did, in fact, return.

The year 1808 brought with it a marriage to Lucy Bakewell, the loss of Mill Grove, and a move for the newlyweds to Louisville, Kentucky. There, Audubon opened a mercantile business; one of many partnerships and enterprises he entered into through the years. After Louisville, the Audubons moved downriver to Henderson, KY, where John James and his brother-inlaw built a flour mill. Audubon’s companies went under in the Panic of 1819 and the family lost everything; Audubon was even briefly thrown into debtor’s jail before he declared bankruptcy. Upon his release the family moved to Cincinnati, Ohio, where Audubon drew portraits, opened a painting school, and painted exhibit backgrounds and did taxidermy for the Cincinnati Museum.

Lucy was stalwart throughout the shared professional and personal triumphs and setbacks – while the Audubons were blessed with two sons they had lost two infant daughters. Of Lucy, Audubon said,

She felt the pangs of our misfortunes

perhaps more heavily than I but never for

an hour lost her courage; her brave and

cheerful spirit accepted all, and no

reproaches from her beloved lips ever

wounded my heart. With her was I not

always rich?

With his wife’s support and blessing, Audubon realized his artistic talents and decided to pursue his desire to
draw all of the birds in the eastern portion of North America.

In mid-October of 1820, Audubon and Joseph Mason –the best student from his painting school – set out for Louisiana to collect specimens and draw birds for what would become his life’s work: Birds of America
(1827-1838). Following five years of research, Audubon determined that he had amassed a portfolio of
drawings substantial enough to begin the search for an engraver. His desire to depict his birds accurately in
both size and likeness resulted in large scale drawings – they required double elephant folio sized paper.
Consequently, no engraver in America possessed the materials necessary to produce the prints. Europe was
the only place where supplies were readily available; so,Audubon sailed for Liverpool in May of 1826.

Audubon was armed with letters of introduction from prominent members of American and European society and he soon found friends and support for Birds of America. Europeans were also fascinated by the wild look of the “American Woodsman” – a name he coined for himself – and his exciting tales about the American frontier. These new connections influenced the Liverpool Royal Institute to exhibit Audubon’s bird paintings. The show was an overwhelming success and brought him considerable press and support – both emotionally and in the form of subscriptions to Birds of America.

With his spirits lifted by the outpouring of praise, Audubon traveled to Manchester and Edinburgh, Scotland, to advertise and secure more subscribers for his book. In Edinburgh he was introduced to William Home Lizars – the man who would become the initial engraver for Audubon’s book. Unforeseen difficulties concerning Lizars’ colorists forced the dissolution of their partnership a few months after it started. Audubon quickly found a replacement engraver in London, his new headquarters. Robert Havell, Sr. and his son, Robert Havell, Jr. began engraving Birds of America in 1827; the senior Havell retired in June of 1828, at the age of sixty, leaving his son to see the project through to completion.

Over the next decade, Audubon continued to travel throughout Europe and America to find subscribers for Birds of America. Additionally, a few trips between England and America were necessary; first to collect his wife and rescue his marriage, which had been subjected to the hardships of the couple’s long separation, and subsequently, to draw and research new birds for inclusion in future bundles of the book.

Upon the conclusion of Birds of America, the Audubons returned to America in 1839, and soon after, the family moved to a fourteen acre plot on Manhattan Island; named Minniesland, after Lucy. To create financial security, Audubon released an octavo edition (so called because it is an eighth of the size of the Havell Edition) of his book in America, which was easier to handle and more accessible for the general public. Along with his friend, John Bachman; and his sons, John Woodhouse and Victor Gifford, Audubon began to research and draw for another book: Viviparous Quadrupeds of North America. Realizing that the expansion of America into the west was fast approaching, Audubon desired to see that portion of the country in all its untouched glory. Although fifty-seven-years-old, Audubon felt he had one last great expedition in him. Thus, in 1843, he spent eight months exploring the West. Audubon returned to
Minniesland with little desire to paint. He had drawn more than half of the 150 species that were included in Viviparous Quadrupeds, but he left his son, John, to finish the rest; the first edition of the book was released in 1845. In 1847, Audubon slipped into dementia and passed away on the 27th of January 1851 at sixty-five years of age.

For Lucy, all was lost with Audubon’s death; she felt that “…all but the remembrance of his goodness is gone forever.” However, Audubon’s place in history was secure. His skill as an artist and lively compositions revolutionized the standard for ornithological illustration, a previously stiff and static field. Ornithological Biography (1831-1839), the companion book to Birds of America, contained observations of birds mingled with entertaining stories of Audubon’s travels. The two books together not only pleased most scientists but also stimulated interest in and admiration for birds in the general public. Birds of America, with its beautiful, life-sized engravings of 435 bird species, helped to establish and perpetuate Audubon’s legacy as an ornithologist, artist, and environmentalist.

Suited for Sewing

Object: Needle Case with Needles

Accession#: 1984.0067.A-K

The needle was so valuable in medieval times that even a wealthy woman owned only one.  The use of the needle was taught to girls at a young age.  Small air-tight containers became necessary to keep needles from getting lost while not in use and to keep them from rusting. An example of one these containers is this dual pineapple, screw top American or English 19th century vegetable ivory needle case, which contains nine tambour needles. From the last part of the 18th century to the mid-19th century, tambour needles were “one of the most fashionable needlepoint techniques in use.” This type of embroidery was taught to the women of higher status, such as the Randolphs, and was practiced at home.   

Tagua nut

The case is carved out of vegetable ivory, or the tagua nut of South America, which has been used as a raw material for over 160 years. The nuts grow in large clusters on the tagua palm which still grows at lower elevations in the tropical rain forests of Columbia, Peru, Ecuador, Panama, and Brazil. The owner of a factory that processes tagua into jewelry and decorations, notes that the tagua palm is the only “plant product that produces a material that is white, durable, and pure.” Nuts are extracted from the tagua palm and then dried for up to eight weeks. At that point the nut is able to be carved.

The tagua nut was brought from South America to England in small quantities in the 1820’s and 1830’s. This particular needle case, in Wilton’s collection, has two sides carved out of vegetable ivory resembling pineapples. The pineapple was first imported from the Caribbean and cultivated in European greenhouses in the 17th century. The European colonists carried the pineapple symbol to the Americas to represent “friendship” and an image of welcome. Due to its “seemingly exotic qualities and rareness” it became a symbol of hospitality in America and it was considered an achievement for a host to adorn their table with a pineapple.

The needles that are in this particular needle case are tambour needles. Tambouring, the precursor to crochet, is a type of embroidery where chain stitches are worked with a hook through a piece of fabric stretched taut on frame. Tambour is the French word for “drum,” the stretched background resembling a drum. The work originated with Indian leather workers who used it to embellish the belts they made. Tambour needles were generally made of steel and affixed by the means of a small screw into a handle made of ivory or bone. Patterns for tambour, or “white” work, became available in women’s magazines by the early-19th century.

In a 1830 volume of Godey’s Magazine, a popular women’s magazine, describes tambour, its proper material, and methods. The magazine explains that if tambour is “intended to work in crewels, a colored pattern will also be of service, as a guide to the selection of the worsteds, which are usually worked into beautiful groups or wreaths of flowers, in their natural colours, principally for the bottoms of dresses.” Patterns would be done in indigo so they would disappear after washing. According to one historian, “Tambouring was highly fashionable and an easy and elegant accomplishment for aristocratic ladies in their drawing room and allowed their delicate hands to be seen to advantage.” It was popularized by women such as Madame de Pompadour, a member of the French court and the official mistress of Louis XV, who is depicted in a portrait at her tambour frame.

Madame de Pompadour

In the 1770’s, teachers advertised their abilities to educate students on how to do this “new technique.” For example, a notice in the South Carolina Gazette (Charleston) for September 19, 1774, has Ann Sage advertising her ability to teach young ladies “Reading, Tambour, Embroidery, and all kinds of needlework.” Tambour work might have been taught to the Randolph girls around age 7 or 8, when they were starting to learn these skills from their mother or a private tutor. They also could afford a needle case that was made out of a valuable material, such as vegetable ivory, which would have kept their needles together and accessible in a pocket or on a table.

Bibliography

Cavill, Valerie. “Tambour Work”. The Embroiderer’s Guild. 23 February 2013.

<http://www.embroiderersguildwa.org.au/Types%20of%20Embroidery/Tambour.htm>

Doren, Eugene T. “Vegetable Ivory and other Palm Nuts/Seeds as an Art/Craft Medium”.

0ctober 1992. 22 February 2013. <http://www.palms.org/principes/1997/palmivory.htm>

Fletcher, Kenneth.  “Columbia Dispatch: The Tagua Industry”. Smithsonian.com. 29 October

2008. 22 February 2013. <http://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/Colombia-Dispatch-8-

The-Tagua-Industry.html>

Godey, Louis Antoine and Sarah Josepha  Buell Hale. Godey’s Magazine, Volume 2.

Googlebooks.com. 28 February 2013.

<http://books.google.com/books?id=7tQRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA24&lpg=PA24&dq=tam

bour+needle+fixed+into+handle&source=bl&ots=HSGIUHQthQ&sig=78huKk0HD26Oi

I7Cu2uQXqcSwSg&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ZtowUYnZCdPx0wHR64CIDg&ved=0CD4Q6A

EwAw#v=onepage&q=tambour%20needle%20fixed%20into%20handle&f=false>

Lambert, Francis. The Handbook of Needlework. Googlebooks.com. 23 February 2013.

<http://books.google.com/books?id=SYIDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA133&lpg=PA133&dq=t

ambour+needlework&source=bl&ots=Uj9tDad8EN&sig=KPbKWfSRj90dhyYGKIb-

v9Joxq4&hl=en&sa=X&ei=j_koUafeKeXh0gHdh4HgCg&ved=0CEQQ6AEwAzgo#v=o

nepage&q=tambour%20needlework&f=false>

Leslie, Catherine Amoroso. Needlework through History: An Encyclopedia. Googlebooks.com.

23 February 2013.

<http://books.google.com/books?id=lEiGeSLKLjMC&pg=PA212&lpg=PA212&dq=tam

bour+needles+history&source=bl&ots=pMjneWA7BZ&sig=l-

VNVvNHew8cfwyNP35nSnRbhWQ&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Xa8nUf8lysfQAdnbgNgB&ved

=0CFoQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=tambour%20needles%20history&f=false>

Swan, Susan Burrows. A Winterthur Guide to American Needlework. Crown Publishers, Inc.

New York: 1976.

Umbrello, Dr. T. “The Pineapple”. Union County College. 22 February 2013.

<http://faculty.ucc.edu/biology-ombrello/pow/pineapple.htm>

Weissman, Judith and Wendy Lavitt. Labors of Love: America’s Textiles and Needlework,

1650-1930.  Random House. New York: 1994.

“Tambour Needle” V&A Collections. 5 February 2013. 22 February 2013.

<http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O78817/tambour-needle-unknown/>

“Madame de Pompadour”. Wikipedia.org. 21 February 2013. 22 February 2013.

<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madame_de_Pompadour>

Lathing and Turning Techniques: The Best of Fine Woodworking Techniques.

Googlebooks.com. 23 February 2013.

<http://books.google.com/books?id=eI30loPhRdcC&pg=PA49&lpg=PA49&dq=tagua+nut+about&source=bl&ots=RyuuEKkzw6&sig=jWA2v8lDrfAiL9aixZNOuTZ2fGQ&hl=en&sa=X&ei=2awnUfvsD4q20AHS-4GIAg&ved=0CD8Q6AEwAzge#v=onepage&q=tagua%20nut%20about&f=false>

Image Credit

http://www.pueblito.ca/materials.php

http://www.flickr.com/photos/funnybunny/5852489807/ 

Travel in Imagination

Object: Rocking Horse, 19th century

Accession #: 2002.9

One of the most loved toys in a child’s nursery is the rocking horse.  This one, in Wilton’s collection, looks as if it might have seen a lot of adventures at one time, by many excited children. Covered with tanned animal hide and adorned with a tail made of real animal hair, this wooden rocking horse looks out of glass eyes.  Its wooden snout also has red nostrils and an open mouth. One historian states that, “Posed imperiously on their curved rockers, many horses do exude quite an aggressive air, and probably taught the small child something of the respect he would later need in dealing with a living horse.”

Charles Lavallen Jessop (Boy on a Rocking Horse), 1840
Sarah Miriam Peale 

Children's toy horses goes back as early as the Middle Ages with the popular hobby horse- a fake horse’s head attached to a stick.  Early construction of rocking horses consisted of two boat shaped plank sides attached to sides of the bottom half of the horse’s body.  These toys were carved by hand until the late 19th century when they began to be mass-produced.

Horses were made to look realistic by being covered in animal skin.  Reference to these types of toy horses are made as early as 1561 when a young Bathasar Paungartner writes in a letter requesting from Frankfurt Fair a horse covered in goatskin.  These rocking horses were, by 1880, the more the more expensive types which also included manes and tails of real animal hair.  Queen Victoria’s children would not go on a trip to Osborne House, the royal residence in the Isle of Wight, without the desire to bring along their skin covered rocker.

 

Rocking Horse,
Victoria and Albert Museum Collection

The toy horse was seen as a valuable tool to teach skills to children they would need in adulthood.  James I, of England, told his young son that “the honourablest and most commendable games that ye can use are games on horseback.”  William Long, who was a carver and cabinet maker from London, boasted in the Pennsylvania Packet, in 1785, that his rocking horses were made “in the neatest and best manner to teach children to ride, and give them a wholesome and pleasing exercise.”  A wooden rocking horse in the Victoria and Albert Museum is thought to be the oldest in the United Kingdom. Charles I, who was the possible owner of this 17th century rocking horse, was a “delicate child” having trouble walking and speaking.  He suffered from rickets, a disease characterized by softened bones due to lack of Vitamin D intake, and it has been suggested that a rocking horse may have been used as treatment and to provide exercise while strengthening his legs.

Knowing the importance of learning how to interact with a real horse through the use of a toy rocking horse could have been evident in the Randolph household, especially with five boys. One historian adds that “to have the concept of a horse brought down to one’s own level when one is little opens wide the doors of unlimited travel in imagination.”  The children throughout the generations of the Randolph family living at Wilton would not have been any different, as a rocking horse similar to this one would have provided hours of limitless play and exercise. 

Bibliography

Barenholtz , Bernard and Inez Mclintock. AmericanAntique Toys: 1830-1900. Harry N.

Abrams, Inc. New York, 1980.

Gaffney, Dennis. Pbs.org. “Tips of the Trade:Galloping for Rocking Horses?”. 11 October 2002.

1 February 2013. < http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/roadshow/tips/rockinghorses.html>

King, Constance. Antique Toys and Dolls. RizzoliInternational Publications, Inc. New York,

1979.

Simpson, Margaret. Powerhouse Museum. “PowerhouseMuseum Collection Search 2.53”. 1

February 2013. < http://www.powerhousemuseum.com/collection/database/?irn=37763>

White, Gwen. Antique Toys and their Background.Arco Publishing Company, Inc. New York,

1971.

“History of Rocking Horses” Stevenson Brothers.2 February 2013.

<http://www.rockinghorses.uk.net/history-of-rocking-horses>

“King’s Rocking Horse Goes on Show” BBC News.  9 December 2006. 2 February 2012.

<http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/london/6165167.stm>

“Rocking Horse” V&A Collections.9 January2013. 2 February 2013.

<http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O138880/rocking-horse-unknown/>

“Rickets” Dictionary.com. 2 February 2013.

<http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/rickets?s=t>

ImageCredit

http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O138880/rocking-horse-unknown/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Charles_lavallen_jessop_(boy_on_a_rocking_horse)_sarah_miriam_peale.jpg

A Box for a Fragrant Powder

Object: Snuff Box
Accession #: 1952.2.1A-B

Snuff, which is prepared by drying, toasting, then crushing cured tobacco leaves, was the preferred method of tobacco consumption by the Incas. Containers used for storage of snuff included bottles, pockets, and bags as well as boxes.  The term "japan" entered the English language in 1688 as a word synonymous with black varnish or lacquer applied to wood.  One such "japanned" box in Wilton’s collection is this black wooden snuff box. Painted on the lid is a landscape with people on horses, a village, trees, and mountains in the distance.  As on many 18th century plantations, the cash-crop at Wilton was tobacco.  It is likely that the tobacco from Mr. Randolph’s plantation was made into snuff that was sold to the elite.

Snuff-taking was considered fashionable amongst the elite as well as being useful for preventing contagious diseases, colds, and consumption.  John Murray wrote Snuff Taking: its utility in preventing bronchitis, consumption, etc. in 1870 and includes a chapter with prescriptions.  He attests in his book that the first reception among the elite was “due much more to its reputed virtues, as a valuable remedy, than as an article of luxury; hence, the early names of the plant—southern all heal, holy herb, holy healing herb, &c.”  A powder of herbs was taken through the nose and used as a remedy for diseases as early as Hippocrates, in 400 B.C.  Jean Nicot, French diplomat and scholar who is connected with the introduction of tobacco in a granulated form, presented the powder to Catherine de Medici.  Catherine, the wife of King Henry II of France from 1547 until 1559, had been looking for a remedy for her headache.

There was an importance placed on how the “fragrant powder” was taken into one’s nose. One historian expresses the attitude of the times that “a polished snuff taker also required a steady hand, smooth nostrils and a clean shaven face.  Careless snuffers were a mess.”  Schools in London in the early 17th century were formed to teach the proper use of snuff.  Charles-Maurice-de-Talleyrand-Perigord, French statesman and diplomat under Napoleon during the French Revolution, “held snuff-taking to be essential to the politicians, as it gives time for thought in answering awkward questions while pretending only to indulge in a pinch.”  A box such as this one would have been ideal for a snuff-taker, such as Talleyrand, to keep a stash of the ground tobacco close by his side.

Mr. Randolph may have owned a box similar this one which could be set on a table for easy access to the snuff for the sniffing of the owner or for offering of it to a guest.  Either way, he would have been familiar with snuff as the owner of a tobacco plantation and a member of the elite.

Bibliography

Curtis, Mattoon M. The book of snuff and snuff boxes. Bramhall House. New York: 1935.

Gately, Iain. Tobacco: The Story of How Tobacco Seduced the World. Grove Press, 2001. New

York.

Le Corbeiller, Clare. European and American Snuff Boxes 1730-1830.. Viking Press. New York:

1966.

Murray, John Carrick. Snuff-Taking. J. Chruchill. London: 1870.

“Charles-Maurice-de-Talleyrand, prince de Benevent”. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 7 February

2013. < http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/581601/Charles-Maurice-de-Talleyrand-prince-de-Benevent>