Stargazing

Object: Book, The Young Gentleman’s Astronomy, Chronology, and Dialling by Edward Wells, D.D.

Accession #: 2012.0009

There were five sons in the Randolph family, each of whom was likely given the highest education.  The family likely hired a private tutor, who would teach the children year-round.  Not only were they taught by a tutor, but also used numerous books to aid their lessons.  One such book might have been similar to The Young Gentleman’s Astronomy, Chronology, and Dialling by Edward Wells, D.D.  This volume on astronomy, as well as related topics, includes multiple illustrations, diagrams, and tables, some of which fold out.  The book includes six chapters, three tables, and a catalogue. 

Astronomy is the scientific study of the individual celestial bodies (excluding the earth) and of the universe as a whole.  Its various branches include astrometry, astrodynamics, cosmology, and astrophysics.  Astronomical almanacs show that the colonists, according to one historian, “had a great desire to speculate on the mystical influence of stars on the fate of mankind.”  This included providing a connection between health remedies and the timing of the phases of the moon, as the Pennsylvania Dutch believed.  Even one of the nation's founding fathers had a keen interest in the subject.  When Thomas Jefferson founded the University of Virginia in 1819, his earliest plan for the curriculum of the school included astronomy.  He also made plans for the nation's first observatory and planetarium.  The university's observatory was constructed in the 1830s (the first one having failed to be finished before Jefferson died).  By this time the federal government had built the U.S. National Observatory and astronomy become, “one of the most popular courses in the American university.”   

Along with the subject of astronomy the book also covers chronology and dialing.  Chronology is the science of computing time or periods of time and assigning events to their true dates.  One historian explains that it was considered a “legitimate field of study through medieval, Renaissance and Baroque periods” and even Isaac Newton wrote about the subject in his treatise, The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended.  Lastly, The Young Gentleman’s  examines dialing, the telling of time using the face of a sundial and the casting of the sun's shadow. 

The conviction of the author, Edward Wells, as stated in his preface was that

Wherefore, the most proper method to make Young Gentleman Learned, is this, to teach them at first the only such elements of the Liberal Arts or Sciences, as are most useful in the common affairs of Life, and withal most easy to be known…And when they find that the Understanding thereof has no Difficulty, then they will be also encouraged to proceed. And when they have thus gone through, and become Masters of the most useful and easy Elements of the liberal Arts and Sciences, they will thereby be enabled with much more Ease to conquer the more difficult Parts of Learning, if their own Inclinations shall lead them thereto hereafter, when they are come to Riper Years, and so can judge more rightly of the worth of Learning.

It is possible that the Randolphs saw the importance of studying these subjects as well and had a book similar to this one presenting astronomy, chronology, and dialing to their five young gentlemen. 

Bibliography

Aveni, Anthony F. Colonial Williamsburg. “Astronomy and Stargazers”. 4 November 2012.

<http://www.history.org/foundation/journal/winter05-06/telescopes.cfm>

Latham, Lance. Hermetic Systems. “Technical Chronology”. 4 November 2012.

<http://www.hermetic.ch/compsci/techchron.htm>

Wells, Edward. The Young Gentleman’s Astronomy, Chronology, and Dialling. Googlebooks. com. 6 November 2012.

<http://books.google.com/books?id=nDMVAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP11&lpg=PP11&dq=Young+Gentleman's+Astronomy,+Chronology,+and+Dialling&source=bl&ots=MmIMZwy_Cg&sig=yCIGHykZRZsxte502hDiGKZZo6g&hl=en&sa=X&ei=_R-ZUMmLLsbZ0QHq44HICA&ved=0CFgQ6AEwBw>

“Dialling”. Dictionary.com. 5 November 2012.

<http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/dialling>

“Monograph”. Dictionary.com. 4 November 2012.

<http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/monograph?s=t>

The Punishment and The Pardon

Item: Document

Object #: 1901.8

During the American Revolution, two soldiers John La Brun and Christopher Fofsill, of Captain Read’s Troop of Virginia Light Dragoons, were “charged with Desertion and Carrying Harnesses, Arms, and Accoutrements belonging to said Troop.” A court martial was held at Albemarle Barracks on March 24, 1780, and was presided over by Colonel Francis Taylor.  This record of the court martial proceedings describes the fleeing soldiers and their capture, based on the testimony of two other troops in Read's Dragoons. The document is also signed by Colonel James Wood and at the bottom “In Council July 14, 1780” Thomas Jefferson states the remission of the above sentence on La Brune and signed his name. 

A court martial is a trial in a military court for members of the armed forces. The two soldiers on trial were part of Captain Read’s Troop of Virginia Light Dragoons. According to one historian, the Light Dragoons “were first raised in the middle of the Eighteenth Century for reconnaissance and patrolling - in other words scouting - but soon acquired a reputation for courage and dash in the charge.” The court martial of these two soldiers was held at Albemarle Barracks.

Albemarle Barracks was located just outside of Charlottesville, Virginia, where the Convention Army was imprisoned from 1779-1781.  Some 4,000 British regulars and German mercenaries (also known as “Hessians”), collectively called the Convention Army, captured at the Battle of Saratoga, in New York, arrived at Albemarle Barracks in January 1779.  They were marched from outside New York City to Cambridge, Massachussetts in 1777 before boarding ships for Virginia.  It took them nearly three months to get to their new home just west of Charlottesville. One historian describes the living conditions of the Barracks as “primitive huts spread out over several hundred acres” where the prisoners “endured great hardships.” Supplying and guarding the Convention Army drained the resources of local community and militia.  As a result, by February 1781, the last of the prisoners had been relocated. 

The record states that, based on the evidence, both soldiers were found guilty and sentenced accordingly.  The court was of the opinion that La Brun “Ought to suffer Death by being shot” and Fofsill “Ought to receive Corporal Punishment and do sentence him to run the Gauntlet through the troop of the Garrison twice a day for three Days.”  Fofsill’s sentence, running the guantlet, “was a form of punishment in which the culprit was made to run stripped to the waist between two rows of men who whipped and beat him as he passed by. These beatings were extremely severe and the victims often died as a result.”  To “run the gauntlet” was originally “to run the gantelope.”  Gantlope, being the Anglicized form of the Swedish word 'gatlop', or 'gatu-lop', which refers to the gate of soldiers that the victim had to pass through.

This account of the court martial was signed by Colonel James Wood.  In 1776, James Wood of Frederick County was appointed colonel in the Virginia military and was named superintendent of the prisoners of war held by the Virginia militia.  At the time of the court martial Thomas Jefferson was governor of Virginia.  Among his duties as governor was signing official documents and granting clemency to those convicted of crimes.  On July 14, 1780, Jefferson wrote to Col. Wood declaring, “Sir, I inclose you a remission of the sentence against La Brun...”  Jefferson's pardon, rescued La Brun from his death sentence.  Jefferson also remits "The above sentence of La Brun" at the bottom of the court martial record, before signing the document.  It is not yet know if La Brun ever received a punishment less severe than what previously delivered.

Thomas Jefferson visited the Randolphs of Wilton on more than one occasion, including a visit in May 1781.  Jefferson was a relation to the Randolph family, through his mother, Jane Randolph. The Randolphs of Wilton were well involved with the American Revolution. Peyton Randolph, son of William III, was commissioned as a Major in the militia in 1777 and, according to the family, was also an aide-de-camp to General Lafayette.  Peyton's patriotism was so strong that in 1775 Archibald Cary recounts an altercation between him and brother-in-law Lewis Burwell, in which Peyton is stabbed with a dinner knife. 

Bibliography

Alexander, Arthur J. “Desertion and its Punishment in Revolutionary Virginia”. The William and

Mary Quarterly. Third Series, Vol. 3, No. 3 (Jul., 1946), pp. 383-397. Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/1922874>

Martin, Gary. “Running the Gauntlet”. The Phrase Finder. 13 September 2012.

<http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/run-the-gauntlet.html>

Maurer, David. “New Marker commemorates Revolutionary POW march”. The Daily Progress

Online. May 6, 2012. 13 September 2012.

<http://www2.dailyprogress.com/lifestyles/2012/may/06/new-marker-commemorates-

revolutionary-pow-march-ar-1891200/>

“Court Martial”. Dictionary.com. 13 September 2012.

<http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/court-martial>

“Charlottsville, Va.”The Journey through Hallowed Ground: Monticello to Gettysburg. 13

September 2012. <http://www.hallowedground.org/Explore-the-Journey/Historic-Towns-

Villages/Charlottesville-VA>

“Albemarle Barracks Burial Site”. Hmdb.org: The Historical Marker Database. 13 September

2012. <http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker=37586>

“Convention Army The Barracks”. Hmdb.org: The Historical Marker Database. 13 September

2012. <http://www.hmdb.org/Marker.asp?Marker=55784>

“Watch Albemarle Barracks Video” OvGuide: Your Online Video Guide. 13 September 2012.

<http://www.ovguide.com/albemarle-barracks-9202a8c04000641f8000000000de5571#>

 “Colonel James Wood II”. Colonel James Wood II Chapter of the Virginia Society  Sons of the

American Revolution. 13 September 2012. <http://cjwsar.org/coljameswood.html>

 “Finding Aid for Thomas Jefferson Collection, 1780-1881”. William L Clements Library. 20

September 2012. <http://quod.lib.umich.edu/c/clementsmss/umich-wcl-M-230jef?view=text>

“Using Virginia Governors’ Records, 1776-1998”. Library of Virginia. 20 September 2012.

<http://www.lva.virginia.gov/public/guides/rn11_govrecords.htm>

The Papers of Thomas Jefferson Digital Edition, Main Series, Volume 3 (18 June 1779–30

September 1780) ed. Barbara B. Oberg and J. Jefferson Looney. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, Rotunda, 2008. <http://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/TSJN-01-03-02-0406 [accessed 20 Sep 2012]>

“History”. Light Dragoons Regimental Association. 21 September 2012.

<http://www.lightdragoons.org.uk/history.html>

Image Credit

http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker=37586

http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/run-the-gauntlet.html

A Divine Drink

     

Object: Chocolate Pot

Accession #: 1995.0007

The chocolate pot was invented in the 17th century to serve the growing popularity of hot chocolate. The first chocolate pot recognized as such was made by George Garthorne in England in 1685.  John Coney, a silversmith out of Boston, Massachusetts, is accepted as the first to make chocolate pots in North America around 1701.  

A chocolate pot has a shorter spout than a coffee pot and does not have a filter.  Chocolate pots also have a hinged lid with a “removable finial” for a stirring rod.  It was necessary for the chocolate to be stirred before it was poured because hot chocolate was thickened with cocoa butter.  The stirring rod, called a moussoir in French and a molinet in English (for little moulin or mill), was rolled between the palms of the hands to stir the chocolate. The French deviced the pot to serve chocolate in and be able to keep stirring it while keeping it hot.

It is possible that Mrs. Randolph owned a chocolate pot like this one in Wilton’s collection today, which she used to serve chocolate to her guests. This chocolate pot is a hexagonal-shaped silver chocolate pot with a boxwood handle and inset George II coin. Unfortunately, as one historian notes “By the 1820's, a process introduced to remove the fat from cocoa made the drink less heavy and thereby rendered obsolete the special accouterments that gave chocolate pots their beauty.”

                                                                                                                                                 

                                      A Lady pouring Chocolate ('La Chocolatière')

                                                           Jean-Etienne Liotard, c. 1744

In a letter to King Charles I of Spain, explorer Hernán Cortes wrote that, “[this] divine drink...builds up resistance and fights fatigue. A cup of this precious drink permits a man to walk for a whole day without food.”  The Spanish explorer brought chocolate back from his encounter with the Aztec who used chocolate as both a food and currency.  Chocolate mixed with sugar was introduced in Spain 100 years before coffee and tea.  Originally, chocolate was a drink served cold, “thick enough to hold up a spoon.”  It was the Spanish who came up with the idea of serving chocolate hot.  Hot chocolate spread to the rest of Europe when Maria Teresa (former Spanish princess), wife of Louis XIV, acquainted her court with it in 1660.  Chocolate grew in popularity because “to courtiers it was a symbol of chic” and “the drink [was] often figured in the era’s depiction of elegance.”  Thomas Jefferson predicted, “The superiority of chocolate, both for health and nourishment, will soon give it the same preference over tea and coffee in America which it has in Spain.”  The year 1755 is believed to be when chocolate arrived in the colonies because that was when colonists began to go into the chocolate business for themselves.

Chocolate was sold in the form of blocks, sticks, small rolls, or cakes wrapped in paper.  These blocks or sticks were ground to powder and added to the chocolate pot with hot water.  The moussoir or molinet was used to froth the chocolate which sometimes had spices added to it such as anise seed, pepper, ambergris, and cinnamon.  Elizabeth Raffald, an English businesswoman and author, wrote in her book The Experienced English Housekeeper in 1769 on how to make hot chocolate,  "Scrape four ounces of chocolate and pour a quart of boiling water upon it, mill it well with a chocolate mill, and sweeten it to your taste, give it a boil and let it stand all night, then mill it again very well, boil it two minutes, then mill it till it will leave a froth upon the top of your cups."

Chocolate was not just commended for its ability to satisfy one’s sweet tooth but also was seen as good for one’s health.  People drank chocolate as a medicine, known as a “confection.”  An English physician stated in 1662 that made up chocolate blends that could be taken as medicine and one ounce of chocolate had more fat and nourishment than a pound of meat.  Another physician from Holland, Amsterdam wrote, “Chocolate is not only pleasant of taste but is also veritable balm of the mouth, for the maintaining of the glands and humors in a good state of health.  Thus it is, that all who drink it, possess a sweet breath.”  In fact, it was a physician who began the giant chocolate industry of the United States.  It was Dr. James Baker of Dorchester, Massachusetts joined with chocolate maker John Hannon of Ireland in 1765 and sold chocolate.  Dr. Baker put up money to rent space in a gristmill where Hannon ground cocoa beans using water power.  A customer could buy their chocolate with cash or the factory would make it out of the customer’s cocoa beans.

                

                       

                    Advertisment for Dr. Baker's              The Chocolate Girl

                    chocolate                                           Jean Etienne Liotard, c. 1743-1745

However, not everyone could afford chocolate.  One historian agrees, “Chocolate, always expensive, was taken at breakfast by fashionable society.”  The Chocolate Girl was done by Swiss artist Jean Etienne Liotard who had a chambermaid bring his morning chocolate and, impressed by her beauty, had the young lady pose for this painting.  The chocolate houses which opened in London in the 17th century never took hold in America, but as one historian states, “the leisured classes in Virginia took their chocolate at home.”   So it would not be at all surprising if as a guest of Mrs. Randolph, you might have been offered this “divine drink” which she would have served in a chocolate pot much like this one.

Bibliography

Bardi, Carla and Claire Peterson. The Golden Book of Chocolate: Over 300 great recipes.

            Barrons Educational Series, Inc. New York, 2008.

Deitz, B Paula. “Antigues; Chocolate pots brewed ingenuity”. NY Times on the Web. 19

February 1989. 8 March 2012. <http://www.nytimes.com/1989/02/19/arts/antiques-

chocolate-pots-brewed-ingenuity.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm>

Morton, Marcia and Frederic. Chocolate: An Illustrated History. Crown Publishers, Inc. New      

            York, 1986.

Wees, Beth Carver. "Coffee, Tea, and Chocolate in Early Colonial America". In Heilbrunn  

Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. 8 March

2011.<http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/coff/hd_coff.htm>

 “Chocolate Pots”. Gourmet Sleuth. 8 March 2012.

<http://www.gourmetsleuth.com/Articles/Unique-Cooking-Tools-641/chocolate-

pots.aspx>

“Primary Source of the Month: Chocolate Pots”. Colonial Williamsburg. 8 March 2012.

<http://www.history.org/history/teaching/enewsletter/volume9/jan11/primsource.cfm>

“Eighteenth Century Chocolate: Chocolate as a Drink”. The Confectioners Mill Preservation

Society. <http://www.theconfectionersmill.com/chocolatedrink.html>

Images Credit:

http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/upload/img/liotard-lady-pouring-chocolate-la-chocolatiere-L928-fm.jpg

http://www.925-1000.com/forum/viewtopic.php?t=7802

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jean-%C3%89tienne_Liotard_001.jpg

http://www.kraftbrands.com/bakerschocolate/funfacts.aspx



The Rieux Wedding Rings

 

Accession #: 1962.4.1

Item: Wedding Rings

This week's post comes from Savannah, who spent a week of her summer with the staff and interns of Wilton gaining some "valuable" insight into the world of the small museum.  Savannah spent the week researching for her blog entry, inventorying the collection, and firing a musket.

           On October 14, 1780, Justin Pierre Plumard Comte de Rieux exchanged thin, gold weddings rings with Maria Margarita Martin in the royal court of France.  These late 18^th century rings are considered “damiani” style due to the engravings on the outside.  Justin Pierre de Rieux wore his ring with his wife’s name, “M Maria Martini” engraved on it, while “JP de Rieux” and the wedding date are on Maria’s ring.

            The Rieux couple wore their wedding rings on the third finger of their left hand for the entirety of their marriage.  This custom started with the Ancient Egyptians about 4800 years ago.  In Egyptian hieroglyphics a circle means eternity, which is why they used a ring to symbolize the never-ending bond between husband and wife during marriage.  The Egyptians also started the tradition of wearing weddings rings on the ring finger because they believed the vein that carried sentiments began in the third finger and ran straight to the heart.  

Unlike the Egyptians, 18^th century Europeans used wedding rings simply to represent the husband’s possession of his wife.  When Maria and Justin got married a strong patriarchal society still existed, so their wedding most likely had more to do with hierarchy and economics than love, thus the rings probably resembled the same concepts.  Unfortunately, there is no way to confirm this theory because only a limited number of documents exist about Mr. and Mrs. Rieux.

We do know that Maria Margarita Martin was born in England in 1762 to Maria Petronille and Joseph Martin.  Maria’s mother later married Philip Mazzei in London.  Mazzei moved to Virginia in order to introduce vines, silkworms, olives and citrus trees to America, where Thomas Jefferson was instrumental to his success.  Jefferson gave Mazzei 193 acres of his own estate, Monticello, which Mazzei used to create their family estate called Colle. Mazzei’s success was displayed when prominent Virginians such as George Washington and Thomas Adams received Mrs. Mazzei and her daughter upon their arrival to America.  After Maria Martin and Justin le Compte de Rieux’s wedding, Mazzei gave them Colle where they lived with their five children until Maria’s death in 1852. 

Francois Guyon Leroy and Pierre Justin Deriuex had Justin Pierre Plumard de Rieux on March 10, 1756 in Nantes, France.  Justin de Rieux later became le Compte de Rieux when he served as Captain of the Guard of Louis XVI.  He met and married Maria during her visit to France in 1780.  They moved to Colle in 1783 where Thomas Jefferson again assisted the family with legal advice, supplies, and more.  Justin Pierre de Rieux died in 1824 in Virginia. 

The thin gold rings that Mr. and Mrs. Rieux wore throughout their long marriage were donated to Wilton House Museum by Ms. Lancaster and Mrs. John Guy because of the Rieux’s friendship with Thomas Jefferson.  Thomas Jefferson was directly related to the Randolphs through his mother, Jane Randolph Jefferson.  The rings can be viewed during the “My Love Ten Thousand Times: Love and Courtship Since the 18^th Century” exhibition at the Wilton, opening February 4, 2012.

Bibliography

"Justin Pierre Plumard Comte De Rieux (b. March 10, 1756, d. December 23, 1824)." Genealogy.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Jul 2011.  <http://familytreemaker.genealogy.com/users/p/a/s/Robert-L-Pasco/WEBSITE-0001/UHP-0161.html>.

“Letter Book of Thomas Jett.” Thomas Jett, The William and Mary Quarterly. Vol. 17, No. 1 (Jul., 1908), pp. 20-26. Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/1921492>.

"Philip Mazzei." The Jefferson Monticello. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Jul 2011.

<http://www.monticello.org/site/research-and-collections/philip-mazzei>.

"The Dereuix Family of Virginia." ancestry.com. 21 Jul 2001. Web. 29 Jul 2011.

<http://boards.ancestry.com/surnames.derieux/5/mb.ashx>.

 "The History of Wedding Rings." Italian Wedding Designer. Web. 29 Jul 2011.

<http://www.amalfi-wedding-planner.com/eng/StoriaFedi.htm>.

"The Wedding Ring: Brief History." The American Wedding. Web. 29 Jul 2011.

<http://www.theamericanwedding.com/blog/?view=plink&id=360>.

"The History of Wedding Rings." The History of Wedding Rings. Web. 29 Jul 2011.

<http://www.atlantisring.com/History_of_Wedding_Rings.htm>.